Health and Human Development - Unit Two, Area of Study Two: Health Care in Australia - Summary

I definitely would understand if people found this area of study boring, especially if you selected the subject because you were interested in learning about what makes people 'healthy'. However, I really enjoyed it. So much so that it was probably my favourite area of study. I don't know if many are going to agree with me on this, but it kind of reminded me of Legal Studies. However, parts of it did feel very much like Health and Human Development, so don't worry if you have yet to undertake this area of study!

Anyway, this area of study is predominantly about the health care system in Australia -- including the public and private health system.

As always, I suggest taking a look at the study design which you can find here. This area of study is on page 14. 

Let's get into the content!

Medicare and the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS)

Medicare is Australia's universal health insurance, which is subsidised by the federal government. The following table outlines what it does cover and what it does cover. 

Out-of-Hospital Expenses	In-Hospital Expenses	Not Covered
GPs             Specialists             Test/Examinations             Eye tests             Surgical Procedures             Therapeutic procedures by GPs             Some dental services for children             Psychologists (limited amount)	Public Hospitals            Fraction of private hospital expenses	Private hospitals             Most dental services             Home nursing             Ambulance             Physiotherapy             Podiatry             Orthodontics             Glasses/Contacts             Hearing aids             Artificial Limbs             Pharmaceuticals

The amount which Medicare pays for a service is referred to as a schedule fee. 

Also, the table below outlines the positives and negatives of the Medicare system:

Advantages	Disadvantages
Reduces costs for patients Allows for choice of GP Available to all citizens Allows access to free health care in other some other countries	No choice of doctor in hospitals Waiting lists Doesn’t cover alternative therapy or allied health services Often doesn’t cover the full amount of a service

Medicare is funded through three ways, including: 

• General taxation. 
• the Medicare levy
• the Medicare surcharge

The Medicare levy is an additional 2% tax on people earning above $20,000. Meanwhile, the medicare levy surcharge is an additional 1-1.5% tax for individuals earning more than $90,00 per annum and don't have private health insurance. 

--

The Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme is a plan where the federal government subsidises some medications, making them cheaper for the general public of Australia. 

The scheme includes a PBS safety net which ensures people who spend large amounts of money on medications to receive more financial support to purchase medications if needed. 

Private Health Insurance

Private health insurance is an insurance which members pay a premium in return for a payment towards health-related costs which aren't covered by Medicare. It allows for more choice and reduced burden on the public health system. 

Some examples of services which are covered by private health insurance include: 

• Private hospitals 
• Dental services
• Physiotherapists
• Chiropractors

Often, private health insurance doesn't cover all the costs of a medical service. This is referred to as a gap fee, which is the money that needs to be paid extra by a patient. 

As stated previously, the private health sector removes the burden on the public system. Thus, the government want people to take up private health insurance. Therefore, there are three private health insurance incentives:

• Private Health Insurance Rebate
• Lifetime Health Cover
• Medicare Levy Surcharge

The Private Health Insurance Rebate allows members to receive a thirty per-cent rebate on their premium. Meanwhile, the Lifetime Health Cover is regarding people who take up private health insurance once they have reached over the age of thirty. In the instance where individuals take up private health insurance when they are over thirty, they pay an extra 2% for every year they are over 30. Lastly, the Medicare Levy Surcharge (which was discussed earlier) results in people needing to pay extra tax if they don't take out private health insurance despite having enough money to do so. 

Advantages of private health insurance include being able to be a patient at a private hospital, having choice of doctor in hospital and shorter waiting times. Meanwhile, disadvantages include it being costly, sometimes patients needing to pay a gap and private health insurance often having a qualifying period. 

    Community Services

There are various community services which can improve health and wellbeing, they include: 

• Volunteer Organisations
• Conventional Medical Services
• Maternal and Child Health Services
• Places of Worship
• Sports and Recreational Clubs
• Headspace

Rights and Responsibilities of Patients

The Charter of Healthcare Rights outlines the rights of patients and people using the healthcare system. It was created by the Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Healthcare in 2007 and 2008. 

The three guiding principles of the charter are: 

• Everyone has the right to access healthcare services. 
• The government will commit to international agreements regarding healthcare. 
• The charter respects that Australia is made up of differing cultures. 

The charter, of course, outlines the basic rights which patients have. They are the following: 

Access: Patients can access services to address healthcare needs and concerns. 

Safety: Patients have a right to receive safe and high quality care. 

Respect: Care provided should show respect to patients in regards to culture, beliefs, values and personal characteristics. 

Communication: Patients have a right to be informed about various services, treatment options and costs. Information should be clear and provided openly. 

Privacy: Patients have a right for their information and medical records to be private and confidential. 

Comment: Patients can comment or complain about the care they receive. Concerns should be dealt with promptly. 

Other patient rights include being able to seek various medical opinions, receive care and respect from nurses and participate in decisions about the care they receive. 

Meanwhile, the following are some patient responsibilities: 

• Provide information about past and present illnesses. 
• Ask questions when they don't understand. 
• Follow reasonable instructions from doctors. 
• Report safety concerns. 
• Treat medical staff with respect. 
• Ask questions regarding cost prior to treatment. 

Privacy and medical confidentiality are two very important concepts in the healthcare system. Medical confidentiality means that anything which is disclosed between a patient and doctor must be kept in confidence and private. 

However, there are exemptions to privacy laws, such as if disclosing private information would reduce threats to the individual's or public's health and safety. 

Factors Affecting Access to Health Services and Information

Individuals who may have a reduced access to health services include people residing in remote and rural regions of Australia. These regions are long distances away from doctors and hospitals and there is a reduced availability of current technology for treatment and diagnosis. 

Meanwhile, socioeconomic status refers to an individual's or population's occupation, income and education. People who are of a low socioeconomic status may struggle to have the funds to access medical services, especially if private health insurance or a gap fee is needed to be paid. Also, not being well off reduces options for transport to attend hospitals and clinics. Furthermore, as a result of working long hours, some people may not be able to find the time outside of work to visit medical facilities. Also, employees who work on a casual basis or are self-employed do not receive sick leave, reducing the amount of time available to visit doctors or hospitals. 

Health literacy is the extent which people have the capability to obtain, process and comprehend basic health information. Individuals who have a low level of health literacy tend to not have a  preventative health approach to daily life and have a decreased access to health services and information. Barriers to adequate health literacy are low levels of formal education, low socioeconomic status and language barriers. 

Cultural factors include language barriers and religious beliefs which can prevent and reduce access to health services. For instance, someone's language barrier may prevent them from being able to comprehend health information or not feel as if they're in a culturally appropriate environment. Indigenous Australians may struggle with communication barriers and doctors having a differing understanding of concepts of health. Religious beliefs may also affect someone's ability to access health information. This includes Jehovah Witnesses don't allow blood donation, women often can't see male doctors and modesty requirements can interfere with needed examinations. In addition, fasting and food requirements may prevent people from accessing hospital treatment.  

Lastly, gender is a factor which can affect access to health services. Much fewer males access medical facilities and services than women. This may be due to limited opening hours outside of working hours, discomfort in disclosing reason for visit and societal norms and expectations associated with traditional masculinity. 

Digital Media

Digital media includes video, audio and images which are presented as digital media files, such as MP3s or social media. 

In the health sector, there are various forms of digital media which present health information. These include:

• Technology-based patient consultations
• Symptom checkers
• General health and wellbeing websites
• Mobile applications
• Search engines

Technology-based patient consultations are an alternative to face-to-face consultations with a doctor. While they cannot replace physical examinations, they increase the efficiency and access to medical services. These consultations often take the form of video, internet or phone conferencing. 

Symptom checkers are websites or applications where an individual searches their symptoms or answeres questions regarding their symptoms to determine the best sources of actions to resolve their ill-health. Examples include Healthdirect, myDr and mayoclinic.org.

Mobile applications are downloaded onto smartphones to access specific health information, gain information regarding physical activity and share physical activity goals. Examples include the BeyondNow app, On Track with the Right Mix, SkinVision and My QuitBuddy. 

An alternative is also websites, created by both government and independent organisations, which provide generalises health and wellbeing information. Examples include Heatlhdirect, The Better Health Channel and myDr. 

In response to people searching online for medical related information Google provides a resource on their search engine which provides verified and reliable health information from the Mayo Clinic and Harvard Medical School. It provides a basic overview of illnesses and ailments.

With digital media comes positives and challenges. The following table outlines them:

Opportunities	Challenges
Don't need to travel Support groups Free or inexpensive	Self-diagnosis may be incorrect Lack of digital connection Inadequate health literacy  Accuracy and validity of information Self-medicating incorrectly Individuals may develop cyberchondria -- over-researching health information which results in anxiety.

  Issues in Health Technology

The following is an outline of opinions many have regarding new and emerging health technology.

IVF: 

• Some, especially religious individuals, believe artificially creating life is morally wrong. 
• Some believe that there isn't equity of access as it's expensive. 
• Some believe there is too much freedom of choice and it's unethical to create 'designer babies'. 

Nanotechnology: 

• Less invasive than other procedures. 
• Costs less due to reduced nursing services needed for procedures. 

Artificial Intelligence:

• Replaces medical staff.
• Risk to privacy of information. 
• Could reduce the cost of medical services. 

3D Printing:

• Expensive. 
• Not as available to people in rural areas. 

Stem Cells:

• Costly. 
• Ethical concerns regarding the disposal of human embryos. 

Health System Complaint

Complaints regarding the health care system can be submitted to the Health Complaints Commissioner (HCC), who are an independent organisation whose role is to deal with health complaints through a free, impartial and confidential service. Nearly anyone can make complaints -- including patients, their friends and family and other health care providers, 

Complaints made to the HCC can be about:

• Access to services
• Quality and safety
• Care and attention
• Respect
• Communication
• Cost
• Privacy

Complaints can be made against just about anyone, including non-registered and registered medical staff. This includes doctors, dentists, nurses, surgeons, dietitians and paramedics. 

Outcomes can be an explanation, an apology, access to treatment, access or amendment to health records, refund, compensation or change in policy, 

The following outlines the complaint process: 

1. Dispute occurring. 
2. Complaint lodged to the HCC. 
3. HCC accept or decline complaint. 
4. The complaint enters an early resolution, formal resolution or investigation. 
5. Outcome occurs.
6. Complaint is documented. 

____________________________________________________________

And that's all! Make sure to leave a comment about your opinion of this area of study, I'm quite interested to know how others felt about it. Thanks for reading!